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A Strong Tradition Adapting to Change:
The Nuns in Korea
by Chi-Kwang Sunim
©
As a Western
Buddhist nun, I feel very fortunate to have lived in Korea
and trained in this tradition for many years. Having hundreds
of years experience, the Korean bhikshunis have established
a systematic, effective way of training new nuns. They begin
with a novice period, progress to sutra study schools, and
go on to meditation halls or other vocations of their choosing.
The monastic life here is inspiring, although, as in other
Asian countries, it is undergoing change due to the country's
modernization and developments in the predominant Chogye Order.
To understand Korean Buddhism and monastic
life, it is helpful to remember that many influences, spanning
over a thousand years, have brought Buddhism to where it is
today. These include five hundred years of Confucian law,
as well as Taoism, shamanism, and animism, which are still
practiced in many temples. In recent years, Christianity also
has influenced some city temples, which now have choirs, Sunday
schools, and Christian-style religious services. Over time,
Korean Buddhism and Korean nuns have absorbed these influences
and evolved with their own unique flavor.
The nuns' communities are independent
from the monks', although sometimes they reside on the same
mountain. However, the monks and nuns may attend formal ceremonies,
communal events, Dharma talks, ordination ceremonies, and
funerals together at a large temple. From time to time abbots
and abbesses come together for annual training periods and
discussion of the events at their temples. Apart from these
instances of sharing, the nuns live separate, self-sufficient
lives, with their own supporters, training schools and meditation
halls, in thousands of temples varying in size from small
hermitages to very large temples. They even have their own
bhikshuni masters and "family" lineages. In the
latter, disciples of the same master are "sisters,"
nuns who are colleagues of their teacher are "aunts,"
and so on.
The monks and nuns have similar life styles,
temple organizations, robes, sutra schools, and meditation
halls, although the nuns' four-year sutra schools are more
developed than those of the monks. Because of this, the monks
generally show respect for the nuns, especially those who
are elder or positions senior to their own. The nuns also
have a very strong meditation order, where in over thirty-five
bhikshuni meditation halls, twelve hundred or more nuns practice
meditation almost continuously throughout the year.
The lineage of Korean bhikshunis is not
completely clear. Recently while staying in Chon Yong Sa temple
in Seoul, I discovered its old history log listing the unbroken
lineage of abbesses. Queen Son Tok founded the temple 1,350
years ago, when she, her family, and servants became bhikshunis
and resided here. Also, in Chong Yarng Sa Temple in Seoul,
an unbroken lineage of bhikshunis continues to this day. Records
in Buddhist libraries reveal descriptions of early ordinations
even prior to this period and tell of the transmission of
the Korean bhikshuni ordination to Japanese nuns. Many stories,
too, have been passed down about various queens, many of whom
became bhikshunis, and their great works to support the Dharma.
It is suspected that although the bhikshuni order did not
die out during the Confucian rule or the Japanese occupation,
the ordination procedures for both monks and nuns were simplified.
Older nuns speak of their teachers and
their teachers' lineage, and some nuns in the last fifty years
have been considered great masters, although little is written
about their teachings or lives. One great bhikshuni told me,
"If ever you become enlightened, don't let anyone know,
because you will have to spend the rest of your life having
to prove it." We are often told not to discuss our practice
too much, but to let it blossom in our clear and compassionate
actions. We should confide only in a trustworthy teacher who
can guide our practice and actions, so that we are not caught
in thoughts and experiences even of enlightenment. However,
this makes me wonder if nuns throughout history have not been
written about due to their silence and humility!
Nowadays, the most senior bhikshunis are
generally well known. They preside over the main rituals and
ordinations and are the masters of their lineages or heads
of major temples, sutra schools, or meditation halls. Sometimes
they are simply known for being a devout, dedicated bhikshuni
and may or may not have exceptional abilities. Not all of
the senior bhikshunis have many disciples, but they usually
are part of a large "family" lineage, with many
younger nuns following in their footsteps. The products of
their work are found in the temples, sutra schools, and meditation
halls they have constructed, as well as in their Dharma teaching,
translation work, and the role model of monastic life they
set.
The Training of a Novice
The training of a novice takes from six months to one year.
During this time a woman is not yet a nun. Her head is not
shaven-although her hair is cut short-and she may leave the
temple at any time. In this period, she has the opportunity
to choose her teacher, though often she will do this shortly
before she ordains. However, some women come with knowledge
of or commitment to a teacher in this or another temple. During
these first six months, her training is not in the hands of
her teacher, but in those of the kitchen supervisor or other
senior nuns who guide her through her novice period. She works
in the kitchen, serves the nuns in her temple, and becomes
familiar with monastic life. After she has learned the basic
chanting and monastic deportment and has undergone long periods
of bowing and repentance daily, she is tested for about one
month. She needs to have a health certificate and is checked
for physical ailments. In addition, her personal history is
examined; if there is any major flaw in it, she may not become
a nun of the Chogye Order. After completing this examination,
she receives the sramanerika ordination and returns to her
teacher, where she spends another year.
During this next year, she serves her
teacher and prepares for the examination to enter a sutra
school, for which she needs to know some Chinese characters
and to memorize basic texts such as Admonitions to Beginning
Students. Written twelve hundred years ago by Master Chinul
(Bojo-kuksa), it teaches both monks and nuns the discipline
of a newly ordained monastic: how to walk, act, and speak
with others; the importance of respecting one's seniors and
helping one's juniors; and so on. Once she has learned to
live by this basic standard, she begins to study other sutras
and prepares to enter a monastic training college.
Sutra Schools
Both monks and nuns have established colleges
where the ordained train and study. I spent only one year
in Un Mun Sa temple, where my teacher, Myong Song Sunim, has
been the abbess and senior lecturer for twenty years. Here
I experienced the complex, yet inspiring community life of
250 nuns. Only five major sutra schools, with 150 to 250 nuns
each, exist in Korea, although there are several smaller ones.
If a nun does not get into one of the main sutra schools,
where it is difficult to be accepted, she can go to a smaller
sutra school or try to enter a year later, after receiving
further training from her teacher. The first year students
vary in age from twenty to forty-five. Some nuns may stay
for several years with their teacher before going to the sutra
school, and some older nuns may bypass the sutra school and
go directly to a meditation hall.
Training in the sutra schools is rigorous.
The students eat, sleep, and study in one room. Their main
teacher lectures about three hours a day, with the nuns following
the text in Chinese characters, which requires several hours
of preparation. Special Dharma lectures are given weekly by
visiting teachers, along with various other teachings in the
arts, languages, and music. In addition, a work period is
scheduled for two or three hours a day, during which the nuns
look after the vegetable gardens; harvest, pickle, dry, and
store food; or cook for the community. The nuns in the final
year at the sutra schools are in positions of authority and
lead the younger nuns. Several will hold yearly, demanding
positions such as assistant treasurer, head cook, or office
worker.
The diet is vegetarian, simple yet nourishing,
and often served attractively. Senior nuns are offered a slightly
different diet, which is less hot and salty, and the sick
are given special food as required. Meals are eaten formally,
with chanting before and after the meal.
The nuns also do work that directly contributes
to society, with each nun selecting a yearly project. Some
work in orphanages, old people's homes, hospitals, or answer
calls on the telephone hotline, while others produce newsletters,
and Dharma books, and pamphlets. A few nuns work at Buddhist
radio, broadcasting daily Buddhist news, music, chanting,
and Dharma talks. Other nuns work in Sunday schools and summer
retreats for children, or take children from orphanages or
the elderly from old peoples' homes on outings. The nuns involved
in each project raise the funds to do their work.
Although these sutra training schools
are considered Buddhist universities in terms of their scholarship,
they are more than this. The nuns learn to be wholesome, generous
people, qualities often lacking in society. They learn not
only how to wear their robes, how to eat, and so forth, but
also how to communicate with others. In short, they learn
how to be satisfied and happy as nuns. It is not possible
to isolate oneself, for the nuns constantly have to interact
with each other in community life. Sometimes their interactions
are painful, but through these experiences, the nuns know
they will become more understanding of others. The nuns go
from being very immature people, with lots of fears and unrealistic
ideas about monastic life, to becoming more open, accepting,
and willing to listen and engage with others. They develop
commitment to the community as a whole, and one can see in
their faces compassion and wisdom taking shape. Some of these
nuns become outstanding teachers or leaders.
Sufficient time for meditation is lacking
in the sutra schools. The nuns attend morning, midday, and
evening services in the main Buddha Hall. Doing a variety
of communal activities, they learn to be mindful even without
long hours of meditation. Hours of chanting and studying the
Buddha's teachings helps to calm and deepen the mind; yet
I believe more meditation would increase their clarity in
daily life. The sutra school I attended had an hour for meditation
in the daily schedule, but only a few nuns came. When they
are young and busy, they do not appreciate the value of this
practice. Nor are they introduced to it properly, although
they read a lot about it. Thus, even a graduate from a Buddhist
university may not have learned how to meditate well. This
is quite unfortunate, yet common. However, a nun may do chanting
or other practices which purify her mind, and by disciplining
herself, she may become a good practitioner.
The nuns also have to serve the elder
nuns and their teachers. By providing whatever their teachers
request or require, the nuns develop a caring attitude toward
others. They appreciate this learning situation, which helps
them to develop respect and compassion and to diminish arrogance
and stubbornness. Upon occasion tempers are short and people
abruptly correct each other, but the nuns learn to tolerate
such behavior. I have not often seen major disputes although
I have seen nuns misbehave. In that case, they are brought
before the assembly of nuns, where they must repent or at
least explain their behavior. They are cautioned or even reprimanded,
but this is generally done out of kindness and not in a hurtful
way.
I have seen nuns demonstrate against the
elders' opinions. The individuality of the young nuns and
weakening discipline contribute to this development in recent
years. As communities have grown, it is difficult for a few
teachers to control large numbers of students. On one occasion
some years back, the students demonstrated against the abbess
and her staff. This provoked concerns about how sutra schools
should be run in order to prevent such situations from getting
out of hand. At such times elders from other communities intervene,
giving advice and strength.
Bhikshuni Ordination
After four years of training in Vinaya
and preparing for bhikshuni ordination, a nun will graduate
from sutra school and will take bhikshuni ordination. With
more women ordaining and remaining monastics than men, the
female sangha is strong in Korea. This strengthening of nuns
seems somehow to threaten the monks, so to control the situation,
subtle but constant restrictions are being placed on the bhikshunis.
Within the Chogye Order, the bhikshunis have created with
their own funding, a sub-order of senior nuns whose job is
to be aware of major problems and rifts in the nuns' sangha,
to resolve issues quickly, and to work in harmony with the
other branches of the order. However, bhikshunis hold no major
positions in the headquarters of the Chogye Order and are
unable to lecture there as in the past. They rely on good
relations with senior monks for their voice to be heard. Although
some nuns have studied Vinaya extensively, they have not yet
made a graduate school for Vinaya studies as the monk have.
Since this contributes to the monks being more severe with
the nuns, it would be wise for the nuns to improve their Vinaya
education.
Temple rules and monastic guidelines are
emphasized in addition to the Vinaya. In the meditation halls
or the sutra schools in Korea, the monks and nuns do not break
any major rules and seldom transgress even the minor ones.
Within the community, they live very carefully. However, as
the country and temples become stronger and wealthier, corruption
on some levels is inevitable. More Korean monks and nuns travel
abroad and reports of their conduct have not always been positive.
As a visitor in another country, one does not always act as
one does at home.
When I first arrived in Korea many years
ago, the temples were extremely poor. We needed to work every
day simply to have enough to eat, and we valued and shared
the few clothes we had. We also cherished our meditation time
very much. Because monastics cared about community life and
respected their teachers and the sangha, rules were not frequently
broken. When a monastic becomes more concerned with securing
his or her comfort or position, carelessness, greed, and fear
more easily arise.
Meditation Halls
During meditation seasons, the discipline
in the meditation halls is very strong. As in all Korean temples,
those in the meditation halls get up very early, usually about
2:00 or 3:00 A.M. Until they go to bed, which may be 10:00
or 11:00 P.M., they have minimal personal time. They meditate
for ten to fourteen hours a day and the atmosphere is light
and joyous.
After finishing sutra school, a nun may
choose life in the meditation hall. About a quarter of those
attending sutra school go on to become meditation nuns after
they graduate. Most nuns choose to live in a small temple
with their teacher, become abbess in their own temples, or
take graduate courses at a major Buddhist university. A few
choose social work or other professional areas but these too
need further studies at a university.
In Korea, there are at least ten large
meditation halls, each having fifty to one hundred nuns, and
about fifteen medium meditation halls having ten to thirty
nuns. There are also many small gatherings with just a few
nuns meditating together. Often located in beautiful areas,
the meditation halls may be part of a large nuns' temple or
near a large monks' temple. If so, the hall is in a quiet
area away from visitors and tourists. There are two major
meditation seasons-in the summer and the winter-each lasting
three months, and in the spring and autumn there are two-month
"off-season" retreats. Most large meditation halls
are open year round and the most serious practitioners stay
and practice continuously there. In some temples, nuns undertake
retreats for three years or more and are not allowed to leave
the temple under any circumstances during that time, unless
they are very sick.
In the meditation hall nuns alternate
sitting for fifty minutes and walking for ten minutes, with
three-hour sessions before dawn, in the morning, afternoon,
and evening. The basic discipline of the meditation hall is
decided at a meeting at the beginning of the retreat. At this
time, the meditation hall nuns also choose who will be the
leader of the hall and assign other work positions that keep
the temple functioning well. In the past we had to cook and
heat the rooms by making fires, but now electricity and modern
conveniences have taken over these difficult chores in many
temples.
The nuns sit in order of seniority, according
to the number of years they have been ordained. The head of
the meditation hall is in charge of training the younger nuns.
If a younger nun has a problem with her meditation, she goes
to this nun, who either helps her or takes her to see a master.
Almost all the meditation halls are affiliated with a main
temple where there is a master. At the beginning of the meditation
season, and once every two weeks, the nuns attend a talk by
this master or listen to a taped talk if they are unable to
go. If the main temple is far away, they hear a Dharma talk
only a few times during the meditation season, and the elder
nuns take over the responsibility of guiding the younger nuns
in the meantime.
The day before a lecture, the nuns bathe
and look after their personal needs. They do whatever chores
need to be done and sometimes relax or go for a walk in the
mountains. After listening to the Dharma talk the following
day, they continue with the meditation schedule. The days
go by very quickly, and one finds that four or five hours
of sleep is sufficient. If drowsiness occurs in meditation,
one corrects her posture and continues to practice diligently.
Along with meditation practice, some nuns may chant or bow
as repentance practice during break times. They often do some
exercise, T'ai Chi or yoga, but generally this is not a communal
function.
The cushions in the hall are laid out
very close to one another, with the nuns facing the wall when
meditating. They do a koan practice. Here a nun receives a
koan from a master and works with it throughout her life.
This differs from Japanese Zen, where one goes through a series
of koans which open to many aspects of the one. In Korea they
work with the one which will open to many aspects of the others.
A nun's mind should not become attached to the words or the
storyline of the koan. In this way, she comes to the essence.
Some teachers give the koan, "What is it?" or "What
is this?" In other words, "What is this mind? What
is this thing we call I or me?" A story accompanies each
koan, and hopefully one is left with a puzzle or a deeper
sense of doubt about this question. If practice is very strong,
one goes beyond the words and is left with a very curious,
open, aware sense of inquiry from moment to moment. If inquiry
into the koan is not alive, one often finds that one is dreaming,
deluded, or lethargic. A person who is not interested in diligent
practice will not last very long in the meditation halls,
but one who has practiced a long time has this very "alive
word." The question becomes a doubt or sensation of curious
unknowing, and one is completely absorbed in this present
moment. Serious practitioners have a certain joy and strength
that pervades them, and others' problems seem to dissolve
in their presence. At the least, these practitioners show
us how to work with and resolve problems.
Some practitioners in Korea now do other
practices: vipassana they learned from Southeast Asian monks
or Tantra learned from Tibetans. From my observation, providing
that one does not disturb others or expect them to follow,
it is acceptable to engage in other practices. Such practitioners
are usually quiet about their practice.
There is a certain uniformity and consistency
among the nuns in the meditation hall. Of course the nuns
are individuals, but they perform their duties quietly and
contentedly without drawing attention to themselves. The junior
nuns are quickly reprimanded if they stand out and are taught
how to live amicably within the hall. If a nun is sick, she
may go to the infirmary, and if her posture is painful, she
can change her position. But because one sits for long periods,
movement within the meditation session naturally becomes less
and less.
The hall has a sense of lightness, humor,
and joy. Each day the nuns share tea and talk together. The
senior nuns talk about the masters and great nuns they knew,
thus informally giving teachings and guidance on how to practice.
Having tea together is an important part of the practice,
and young nuns who do not want to attend are reprimanded.
Unless one is old or sick, she is expected to share in all
activities, even social times. Once a season a week of non-sleep
practice occurs. During this week every effort is exerted
to sit upright and concentrate on one's koan. A long thin
stick is gently tapped on the shoulders of a dozing nun with
a cracking sound that alerts the whole room. The days and
nights pass, but not without great effort and suffering to
stay alert. However, as thoughts and dreams diminish, the
mind becomes clear and lucid. On the last morning, the nuns
trek in the mountains to get some exercise before resting.
At the end of the season, the nuns are
free to continue sitting in the meditation hall or they may
travel to other meditation temples. Although the atmosphere
may differ depending on whether a hall is close to the city
or in magnificent mountain scenery, the meditation halls are
generally run in the same way, so the nuns have little difficulty
going from one to another.
Close relationships are not encouraged
within nuns' communities, and if two nuns are seen together
for a long period of time, they are encouraged to separate
and will not be accepted in a meditation hall at the same
time. Financial support of the meditation nuns is minimal.
They receive food and lodging for the three months and a small
amount of money when they leave to cover their fare to another
temple. Unlike the monks, they are not well supported financially,
and very few of the meditation nuns have much money. Their
clothes are often old and patched, and they have few possessions.
All of the nuns support each other well, giving freely if
they have something that someone else needs.
Not all nuns enter a meditation hall after
completing sutra school. Some enter a graduate program in
Buddhist studies or social work at a university. A few nuns
study secular subjects to become doctors, lawyers, artists,
or performers. Others are involved in the Buddhist radio and
television, which have become very popular recently. One nun
has become a famous radio announcer with a popular rating
and raises funds for social projects in the community. The
working monastics usually live alone or with one other monastic
and are not very adept in communal life. Few have ever lived
in meditation halls, although many have completed sutra study
schools. However, because they have missed out on the nuns'
communal life, their monastic quality is lacking. In one way,
this is a pity, because in my eyes the monastic communities
are the greatest attribute of the Korean monastic life style.
A nun is sometimes expected to hold a
position in a temple: abbess, administrator, secretary, director,
treasurer, or head of the kitchen. Usually nuns are persuaded
to take on these difficult positions due to their seniority,
abilities, or popularity. Rarely do they choose to be an administration
monastic, as it requires time and effort in areas that are
not so conducive to practice and peace of mind. Of course,
a mature person will use this opportunity to strengthen and
deepen her path. On completion of her duty, she happily returns
to the meditation hall or to her home temple to continue her
practice.
Inspirations and Influences
I had the opportunity to meet a 102-year-old
nun who had meditated for years. She sat bolt upright, with
a rosary of black beads and a rosary of white beads twirling
together in her left hand. With soundless lips that constantly
moved, she silently repeated her mantra. Her eyes gently opened
and rested in space in front of her, glistening with the brilliance
of awareness. My presence created little movement, other than
her right hand grabbing my left firmly and pulling me close
to her. When I yelled in her hard-of-hearing ear, "I'm
a foreigner," she held up the mingled black and white
beads and said, "Let's practice together." When I
asked about her past she said, "What past?" and
her rosary rolled on as she looked straight at me as if seeing
something deep inside. "Let's become enlightened together,"
she grinned. There was nothing further to be said; I was glued
to the cushion, gripped by her hand and her immensity of being.
One of her disciples told me this nun's
story. She came to this site after a life in meditation halls.
Living in a hut, she kept up her practice as if in a meditation
hall. Then another nun appeared who wanted to rebuild the
temple. While this nun raised funds and built building after
building, the old nun continued to sit eight hours a day.
Up until she was ninety-two years old, she still washed her
clothes, cleaned her room, and sat. When the number of disciples
increased and the workload eased, they persuaded her to let
them do her chores. Meanwhile, she continued her practices
of sitting and walking meditation. I heard that shortly before
she passed on, she said she felt totally free. All that needed
to be done was completed and her heart was at peace. She passed
away sitting upright, rolling her black and white beads.
There are many nuns like this, who have
sat many years in the meditation hall and continue to practice
on their own, unknown. A monk like this would have become
a great master with thousands flocking to see him. But the
nuns prefer to be unknown to the public; they are known only
to other meditating nuns and are often forgotten when they
retire to live as a hermit. Rarely are bhikshunis elevated
to the monks' standard of master, but I have never met a nun
who sought this. A few nuns who are apt teachers are not of
the Chogye Order. Many propagate the Dharma overseas and have
large communities. One even has a community of monks under
her, which is a rare occurrence.
Some aspects of the nuns' life in Korea
I feel will be detrimental to the bhikshuni order if not looked
into carefully. Over the last ten years, many aspects of traditional
Korean society have changed, and the attitude of the newly
ordained is very different from before. Now many young women
are disillusioned with the government and their teachers and
reject "the system." Someone entering monastic life
with this motivation usually has a hard time because she finds
more structure and hierarchy in the temples, sutra schools,
and meditation halls. Many young nuns now have strong opinions
when they enter the order, and the gap between the old school
and new is widening. Elders worry how to discipline the young,
and the young are resistant. I do not believe that letting
go of discipline so that one acts like a laywoman but calls
oneself a nun is correct. Finding a middle ground is not easy,
and elders must be sincere, open, present, and practice what
they preach. Westernization and technology are not the problem;
what we do with them is. If comfort and luxury is what one
seeks, being a nun will be very frustrating, for one can never
obtain enough external things. We cannot stop changes in society,
but throughout history, Buddhist practitioners have continuously
developed and communicated what is true and valuable to the
human heart. The Buddha's path to true freedom and peace gives
us genuine wealth and satisfaction.
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